Gene Expression and Gene Regulation

Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins the product is a functional RNA. The process of gene expression is used life – eukaryotes (it is called multicelluler organism), prokaryotes ( single celluler organism, bacteria) and viruses - to generate the macromolecular machinery for life. Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated, including the transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein.
Gene regulation gives the cell control over structure and function, and is the basis for cellular differentiation, morphogenesis and the versatility and adaptability of any organism. Gene regulation may also serve as a substrate for evolutionary change, since control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the functions (actions) of the gene in a cell or in a multicellular organism.
In genetics gene expression is the most fundamental level at which genotype gives rise to the phenotype. The genetic code is "interpreted" by gene expression, and the properties of the expression products give rise to the organism's phenotype.
Transcription: Transcription occurs in three steps in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes: initiation, elongation and termination. Transcription begins when the double-stranded DNA is unwound to allow RNA polymerase binding. Once transcription is initiated, RNA polymerase is released from the DNA. Transcription is regulated at various levels by activators and repressors and also by chromatin structure in eukaryotes.
Translation: Translation or protein synthesis is a multi-step process with initiation, elongation and termination steps. The process requires macromolecules like ribosomes, transfer RNAs (tRNA), mRNA, and protein factors as well as small molecules like amino acids, ATP, GTP, and other cofactors. There are specific protein factors for each step of translation. The overall process is similar in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, although particular differences exist.
RNA splicing: ?????

Gene Expression Technique:

1. Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product. These products are often proteins (in non-protein coding genes such as rRNA genes or tRNA genes), the product is a functional RNA. The process of gene expression is used by all known life - eukaryotes (multicellular), prokaryotes (bacteria) and viruses - to generate the macromolecular machinery for life.
Several steps in the gene expression process may be modulated, including the transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and post-translational modification of a protein. Gene regulation gives the cell control over structure and function, and is the basis for cellular differentiation, morphogenesis and the versatility and adaptability of any organism. Gene regulation may also serve as a substrate for evolutionary change, since control of the timing, location, and amount of gene expression can have a profound effect on the functions (actions) of the gene in a cell or in a multicellular organism.
In genetics gene expression is the most fundamental level at which genotype gives rise to the phenotype. The genetic code is "interpreted" by gene expression, and the properties of the expression products give rise to the organism's phenotype.
Gene Expression Technique:
The expression of genes can be determined by computing mRNA levels with help of following technique like
I. microarrays,
II. cDNA sequence tag sequencing,
III. SAGE (serial analysis of gene expression) tag sequencing
IV. MPSS (massively parallel signature sequencing)
or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization.
Above all of these methods are tremendously noise-prone or subject to bias in the biological measurement and a chief research field in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to segregate signal from noise in high-throughput gene expression studies.
This study is often used to determine the genes mixed up in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the transcripts that are up-regulated and down-regulated in a particular population of cancer cells.

Department of Bioinformatics in North AMERICA

• Department of Bioinformatics in N AMERICA
  1. University of Alabama, Research in Bioinformatics http://www.cis.uab.edu/graduate/bioinformatics_phd.php 2. University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada BIOIN 301 (bioinformatics I)3. University of Arizona, USA.4. Arizona State University, USA Professional Science Master's (in Computational Biosciences) http://math.la.asu.edu/~cbs/text/degree.htm#PSM 5. University of Arkansas at Little Rock, USA bioinformatics minor6. University a Baffalo , USA. MS in bioinformatics and biometrics.7. Baylor University, USA, Bachelor of Science in Informatics degree with a major in bioinformatics. http://www.ecs.baylor.edu/Computer_Science/index.php?id=29232 8. Boston College , USA Ph.D in biology in the fields of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology. http://bioinformatics.bc.edu/#GradProgram 9. Boston Univ, USA Ph.D in bioioinformatics. http://www.bu.edu/bioinformatics 10. Brigham Young University, USA bioinformatics program11. University of California at Berkeley, USA http://www.unex.berkeley.edu/bioinformatics 12. University of California at Los Angelas, USA http://www.bioinformatics.ucla.edu/ 13. Uniersity of California at San Diego, USA.14. University of California at San Francisco, USA.15. University of California at Santa Cruz, USA. 16. California State University at East Bay, USA bioinformatics certificate program17. Canadian Bioinformatics Workshops, Canada.18. UnivERSITY of Carnegie-Mellon, USA.19. Columbia Univ , USA Ph.D in areas of computational biology and bioinformatics20. Drexel University, USA, Master Degree Programs with Bioinformatics Concentration, Doctoral Program in Integrated Bioinformatics.21. Duke Univ, USA Ph.D in Computational Biology and Bioinformatics.22. Eastern Michigan University, USA. M.S. in Bioinformatics http://www.emich.edu/bioinformatics/ 23. George Mason Univ, USA. Ph.D. in Bioinformatics http://binf.gmu.edu/phd.html 24. Harvard Univ, USA fundamentals of computational biology and bioinformatics, II),25. University of Idaho, USA Ph.D and master degree in bioinformatics and computational biology26. University of Illinois at Chicago, USA. Master and Ph.D program in bioinformatics27. Indiana Univ, USA M.S. in Bioinformatics http://informatics.indiana.edu/academics/bio.asp 28. Medison Area Technical College, USA bioinformatics certificate29. Morgan State University, USA master degree in bioinformatics30. New York Univ, USA Ph.D in Genomics and Bioinformatics http://www.nyu.edu/fas/dept/biology/research/genomics.html 31. University of Oklahoma, USA genomics and bioinformatics program32. Polytechnic University, USA certificate, MS, in bioinformatics33. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, M.S. in Bioinformatics http://j2ee.rpi.edu/biology/update.do?catcenterkey=13 34. Rice University, USA master of computer science with a concentration in bioinformatics35. Rockefeller University, USA bioinformatics and computational biology program36. Univ of Science in Philadelphia, USA bioinformatics graduate program37. Seneca College, Ontario, Canada Bioinformatics Post-Diploma Certificate Program38. Univ of South Carolina , USA professional science master degree in bioinformatics39. Stanford Univ, USA Biochemistry118Q (genomics and bioinformatics)40. Univ of Texas at Galveston, USA bioinformatics program41. Virginia Commonwealth University, USA master of bioinformatics
  
  

Some Outstanding University in Europe (Deptt. of Bioinformatics)

• University in Europe (Deptt. of Bioinformatics)
  
  Oxford University, UK Part-time Modular MSc in Bioinformatics and regular short professional updating courses Bioinformatics Centre
  Pasteur Institute for Bioinformatics , France
  Stockholm University , Sweden
  Universiteit Amsterdam , Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 2-year International Masters in bioinformatics
  (Universitat de) Barcelona and (Universitat) Pompau Fabra, Spain
  Univ of) Bergen , Norway. KB207 (anvendt bioinformatikk),
  Bioinformatics Research and Education Workshops" (BREW):
  (Univ of) Cambridge , UK MPhil in Computational Biology
  Cranfield Univ , Silsoe, UK.Centre for Bioinformatics & IT MSc in bioinformatics
  De Montfort University, UK .Bioinformatics MSc program
  Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland MSs in bioinformatics
  (Univ of) Geneva , Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, and (Univ of) Lausanne , Switzerland .Diplome d'etudes approfondies (DEA) plurifacultaire en Bioinformatique
  University of Leeds, UK Master in Research in bioinformatics
  Katholieke Universiteit Leuven , Leuven, Belgium master of bioinformatics
  University of Helsinki , Helsinki, Finland. Ph.D program in computational biology, bioinformatics, and biometry http://www.cs.helsinki.fi/combi/
  Imperial College , London, UK MSc in bioinformatics
  University Manchester, UK. Bioinformatics Unit

Some Outstanding University in Asia and Africa(Deptt. of Bioinformatics)

University in Asia (Deptt. of Bioinformatics)
Jawaharlal Nehru Univ , India, M.Tech in Computational and Systems Biology, Pre-Ph.D, and Ph.D in Bioinformatices, Computational Biology and Systems Biology
Jamia Millia Islamia University , India M.Sc. in bioinformatics
Academia Sinica , Taiwan Taiwan International Graduate Program: bioinformatics program
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, India. B.Tech in bioinformatics
Amrita Vishwa Vidya Peetham (Deemed University) , India M.S. in bioinformatics
Andhar University , India.. M. Tech in bioinformatics
Asia University , Taiwan. undergraduate, Master
Baqai Medical University, Karachi, Pakistan. Bachelor of Science in Bioinformatics
Bharathiar University, India. M.Sc., P.G. diploma in bioinformatics .
Banasthali University , India. M.Sc. (2 years) and P.G. diploma course (1 year) in bioinformatics
Beijing Univ, Beijing, China. http://ctb.pku.edu.cn/main/Course.htm
Bioinformatics Institute, Singapore. MSc in bioinformatics
Bioinformatics Institute of India, India homepage
Chinese University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China, (bioinformatics and proteomics)
Chuang Hua University, Taiwan. B.S in bioinformatics M.S. in bioinformatics
COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan. bachelor of science in bioinformatics
The) Global Open University at Nagaland, India, M. Phil in Bioinformatics, http://nagaland.net.in/new_page_4.htm
Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Korea. http://bio.gnu.ac.kr/lecture/
Univ of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China, http://www.hku.hk/bruhk/bscbioinf.html
University of Hyderabad, India. M. Tech in bioinformatics
Indian Institute of Chemical Technology,Tarnaka, Hyderabad, India. advanced diploma in bioinformatics
Indian Institute of Information Technology, Allahabad, India, Master of Technology (BioInformatics) http://iiita.ac.in/inner.php?conf=grad
Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology , Bangalore, India. post graduate diploma courses
International Institute of Information Technology, India. M. Tech M.S (by research), Ph.D in bioinformatics
Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Pakistan. Mohammad Ali Jinnah University , Pakistan
University of Tehran, Iran Iran Bioinformatics Center. International training course: computer application in molecular biology
Vellore Institute of Technology, India. B. Tech in bioinformatics
University in Africa (Deptt. of Bioinformatics)
1. Arab League Educational, Culture and Scientific Organisation , Egypt bioinformatics
2. Bionet Africa , Kenya training workshop on bioinformatics/computational biology
3. Centre de Biotechnologie de Sfax, Sfax, Tunisia ,Bioinformatics and genome data analysis
4. University of Ibadan , Nigeria west African bioinformatics training course
5. (Institut) Pasteur Tunis, Tunisia A Benkahla, F Tekaia, A Rebai, E Yeramian Bioinformatics and Comparative Genome Analysis course
6. (Univ of) Western Cape , South Africa MSc and PhD programmes in Bioinformatics

Application of Computer Sc. on human Genetics=Bioinformatics

Bioinformatics is the application of information technology and computer science to the field of molecular biology.
In 1979 Paulien Hogeweg who coined the term “Bioinformatics“. Its primary use since at least the late 1980s has been in genomics and genetics, particularly in those areas of genomics involving large-scale DNA sequencing.
For last few decades fast development in the field genomic and other molecular research technologies and developments in information technologies have joint to produce a tremendous amount of information related to molecular biology.
The field of bioinformatics has evolved such that the most vital assignment now involves the analysis and interpretation of various types of data, including nucleotide and amino acid sequences, protein domains, and protein structures.

Goal of Bioinformatics.
The primary goal of bioinformatics is to increase our understanding of biological processes and main activities of bioinformatics comprise mapping and analyzing DNA and protein sequences, aligning different DNA and protein sequences to compare them and creating and viewing 3-D models of protein structures

Major research hard work in the field include sequence alignment, gene finding, genome assembly, drug design, drug discovery, protein structure alignment, protein structure prediction, prediction of gene expression and protein-protein interactions, genome-wide association studies and the modeling of evolution.